Introduction
Saffron (Crocus sativus) is the most valuable crop species in the world and is the only plant whose product is sold by gram. Saffron belongs to lrridaceae family and is geographically distributed in Mediterranean climates, East Asia (latitudes 30-50° N and longitudes 10° E to 80° W) with low annual rainfall, cold winters and hot summers. While some species are grown for their beautiful ornamental flowers, cultivated species of saffron have great economic importance.
Saffron has unique characteristics, its flowers appear before any vegetative development, its growth starts in autumn and ends in spring, its seeds are sterile despite production of many flowers, and its flowers should be harvested early morning before sunrise . Therefore, its production technology is more complicated compared to other crops and is mainly based on farmers’ indigenous knowledge.
Ref:
Historical background, economy, acreage, production, yield and uses. Saffron (Crocus sativus) Production and Processing. 1-12. – Kafi, Mohammad & Kakhki, A. & Karbasi, A.. (2006).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288957683_Historical_background_economy_acreage_production_yield_and_uses
Saffron Botanical Description
The saffron plant belongs to the Iridaceae family. This herbaceous perennial plant reaches 10 to 25 cm in height developing from its bulbs. The bulb, of sub-ovoid shape, is of variable size and forms. It has a massive structure and is covered by many concentric spathes. Each mother bulb produces from apical buds one to three large daughter bulbs and several small bulbs from lateral buds . Saffron has two types of roots: fibrous and thin roots at the base of the mother bulb, and contractile roots formed at the base of the lateral buds . The leaves vary from five to 11 per bud . They are very narrow and measure between 1.5 and 2.5 mm of dark green color.
They measure 20 to 60 cm in length with a whitish band in the inner part and a rib on the outside.The flowers of Crocus Sativus begin to appear at the beginning of autumn, towards the end of September of purple color composed of six tepals, three are internal, whereas the three others are external, which meet at the long tube that arises from the upper part of the ovary . At their appearance, the flowers are protected by whitish membranous bracts. The pistil is composed of an inferior ovary from which a thin style, 9 to 10 cm long, arises. The style ends with a single stigma composed of three filaments of intense red color whose length exceeds that of the tepals, which are the part of the plant interesting for the man from the point of view of culture .
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Main Phytochemical Components of Saffron
Chemical analysis of C. sativus stigmas has shown the presence of about 150 volatile and non-volatile compounds. Fewer than 50 constituents, however, have been identified so far .The three main biologically active compounds are :
(1) Crocin, a carotenoid pigment responsible for the yellow-orange color of the spice;
(2) Picrocrocin, bringing saffron flavor and bitter taste;
(3) Safranal, a volatile compound responsible for the aroma and smell so specific to saffron.
Crocin (C44H64O24) is a rare carotenoid in nature, easily soluble in water. In comparison with other carotenoids, Crocin has a wider application as a dye in foods and medicines, mainly because of its high solubility.
Picrocrocin (C16H26O7) is the main factor influencing the bitter taste of saffron, which can be crystallized by hydrolysis .
Safranal (C10H14O), responsible for the aroma (it accounts for 70% of the volatile fraction), has little or no presence in fresh stigmas, its concentration depends on the conditions of drying and preservation of saffron .
In addition to Crocin and Picrocrocin, the major compounds in saffron are anthocyanins, flavonoids (such as kaempferol) but it is also rich in vitamins, amino acids, proteins, starch, mineral matter and gums . It also has many non-volatile active components, many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. The volatiles, which have a very strong odor, are consistent of more than 34 components, which are mainly Terpenes, Terpene alcohols, and their Esters .
The quality of saffron depends on the concentration of these three main metabolites providing the unique color and flavor of stigmas. Their contents depend on the environment and cultural practices . The chemical composition of saffron samples from many countries indicates that the reported values strongly depend on the methods used for drying, extraction and stigma analysis. Many methods of analyzing saffron components have been described . The quality of saffron is thus regulated by ISO 3632-1&2 standards, aimed at standardizing the classification of saffron worldwide; these are updated every three years.
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SAFFRON USES
Saffron is used in an ever-increasing number of applications and industries and it is likely that the full potential of saffron is far from understood. At present, there are four primary applications of saffron worth mentioning here . Saffron is used as: a cooking spice and an herbal remedy, and in textile dyeing and perfumery.
Painting and Textile dye: Saffron is used as a fabric dye, primarily in Asian countries such as India and China. Although not particularly cost-effective or stable (with colours fluctuating over time), the popularity of saffron as a dye stems from the status it conveys, a trait that endures to the present day.
Perfumery: The attractive quality of saffron’s complex aroma has also been recognized by the perfumery world, although this is not a significant market segment yet.
Food industry: Saffron enjoys a coveted and highly valued status in the culinary world. It is widely used as a seasoning in European/Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, North African and Asian cuisines. Saffron is used as an herb and a spice as well as a flavouring ingredient. It is also increasingly used as an alternative to chemical additives, especially in western markets.
Medicine: Saffron has been used in traditional medicine in Persia, Egypt and Europe for millenniums. In the age of modern medicine, pharmaceutical firms are researching the potential of saffron as a health supplement.
1- Anti carcinogenic
Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. Epidemiological evidence indicates that there is a correlation between a diet rich in antioxidants and a lower incidence of morbidity and mortality.
Among the natural remedies, saffron and its ingredients (especially its carotenoids) have anti-tumorand anti-carcinogenic activities while not exerting any cytotoxic effect on healthy cells. A wide variety of natural substances has been identified as having the ability to induce apoptosis in various tumor cells.
Among the many biological properties reported with saffron, those anti-carcinogens are of great interest and are extensively studied by experiments both in vitro and in vivo.
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2-Preventing nervous system disorders
The antioxidants in saffron may play a role in protecting the body from disorders affecting the nervous system.
Research from 2015 notes that compounds in saffron, such as crocin, appear to reduce inflammation and oxidative damage in the brain, which may lead to beneficial effects.
A study in the journal Antioxidants noted that saffron might theoretically help with Alzheimer’s symptoms due to both its memory-enhancing properties and its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.People with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s who took saffron for 22 weeks had cognitive improvements that were comparable with those of people who took the drug donepezil, and they also experienced fewer side effects.
While this is early evidence to support the medicinal use of saffron, researchers suggested that future clinical trials could help back up these claims.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4599112/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5187538/
3- Promoting weight loss & Effect on Cholesterol Levels
Nibbling is one of the dietary habits that are difficult to control, predisposing to weight gain and,consequently, obesity and subsequent metabolic complications (dyslipidemia, non-insulin-dependent diabetes, circulatory disorders, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, etc.). It mainly affects the female population and is frequently associated with stress. Due to the presence of Crocetin, saffron indirectly helps to lower cholesterol levels in the blood and thus the severity of atherosclerosis, reducing the risk of a heart attack . The hypolipidemic effect of crocin is attributed to the inhibition of pancreatic lipase, thus limiting the absorption of fats and cholesterol . Previous studies have concluded that saffron has shown anti-obesity and anorectic effects in obese rat models. This thanks to its effect on the reduction of caloric intake by blocking the digestion of dietary fats via the inhibition of pancreatic lipase; the feeling of satiety due to the increased level of neurotransmitters without forgetting its role in the improvement of glucose and lipid metabolism. In addition, Crocin has shown a significant decrease in the rate of body weight gain, total fat deposition, and regulates the weight ratio of body fat to the epididymis .A study in the Journal of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Research found that taking a saffron extract helped people with coronary artery disease reduce their body mass index (BMI), total fat mass, and waist circumference. People who took the supplement also had a reduced appetite compared with those in the placebo group.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5787332/
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4- Promoting libido
Saffron may also increase sex drive and sexual function in both males and females.
The aphrodisiac activities of the aqueous extract of stigmas of C. sativus and its constituents, Safranal, and Crocin, were evaluated. It appears that saffron can, without risk, effectively combat certain fluoxetine-induced sexual disorders in women such as excitement,lubrication, or pain . Saffron has shown a positive effect on sexual function with an increase in the number and duration of erections in patients with erectile dysfunction–even after treatment for only 10 days.
Researchers reviewed the effects of saffron on male infertility problems and noted that while it had a positive effect on erectile dysfunction and overall sex drive, it did not change the viability of the semen.
An older study from 2012 looked at the effects in women who had reported experiencing sexual dysfunction due to taking the antidepressant fluoxetine.
Women who took 30 mg of saffron each day for 4 weeks had increased sexual desire and vaginal lubrication compared with those who took a placebo instead.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5987435/
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hup.2282
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5– Reducing PreMenstrual Syndrome (PMS) symptoms
Saffron may also act to reduce the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
The authors of a 2015 review looked at the research on saffron and symptoms of PMS. Women between the ages of 20 and 45 years who took 30 mg of saffron each day had fewer symptoms than those who took a placebo.
Additionally, women who simply smelled saffron for 20 minutes had lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol in their system, which may also contribute to a reduction in PMS symptoms.
https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0034-1375681#N70618
6- Boosting mood & Antidepressant
There is also growing evidence that saffron may help improve mood and be a useful addition to treatment for depression. The use of saffron as an antidepressant has a long tradition, ranging from antiquity to modern times. Depression is one of the five most prevalent diseases worldwide. It affects about 11.6% of the world’s population . It is predicted that by 2020 this will be the second leading cause of overall disability. Similar to standard antidepressants, saffron can exert its antidepressant effect by modulating the level of certain chemicals in the brain, including serotonin. Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine, is a mood-elevating neurotransmitter synthesized from tryptophan . A study in the Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science found that a saffron extract increased dopamine levels in the brain without changing the levels of other brain hormones, such as serotonin. Other research suggests that taking 30 milligrams (mg) of saffron each day could cause similar effects as drugs that treat mild-to-moderate depression, such as imipramine and fluoxetine. Although some people recommend using saffron as a complementary therapy for improving mood, it is too early to recommend it for treating depression symptoms.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mina_Ranjbaran2/publication/260080975_Aqueous_Extract_of_Saffron_Crocus_sativus_Increases_Brain_Dopamine_and_Glutamate_Concentrations_in_Rats/links/54a3d9ab0cf267bdb904868c/Aqueous-Extract-of-Saffron-Crocus-sativus-Increases-Brain-Dopamine-and-Glutamate-Concentrations-in-Rats.pdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4599112/
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7-Providing antioxidants
The majority of the health claims surrounding saffron relate to its high levels of specific antioxidants. According to a 2015 review, the main active antioxidants include:crocin,picrocrocin,safranal Carotenoids, which include crocin and crocetin, play an important role in health by acting as natural antioxidants. They protect cells and tissues from the detrimental effects of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Crocin is the most studied active ingredient with regard to the antioxidant properties of saffron. However, it does not act alone but thanks to work in synergy with other components such as Safranal, dimethyl crocetin and flavonoids . Other studies focused on the negative effects of oxidative stress on our brain, since it is the organ most exposed to oxidation, due to the high phospholipid content of neuronal membranes and the existing link with development of neurodegenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, whose treatment with saffron can prevent the aggregation and deposition of amyloid β peptide in the human brain and can, therefore, be useful in Alzheimer’s disease
Other compounds include kaempferol and crocetin. These antioxidants help fight against oxidative stress and free radicals in the body. As oxidative stress and free radicals play a role in the development of many health conditions, including cancer and heart disease, antioxidants such as these may help protect a person’s health.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4599112/
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8- Antispasmodic and Digestive Tonic
Virtues have been attributed to Saffron concerning the gastrointestinal and genital system, in particular, those of stimulating the stomach, reducing appetite, treating hemorrhoids, treating anusprolapse, limiting intestinal fermentations, helping with the treatment of amenorrhea, or to stimulate menstruation—and not to mention its abortifacient power . Safranal normalized gastric volume and pH, reduced the surface of gastric ulcer and produced gastric protection. In addition, it was able to improve the histological changes induced by indomethacin and the biochemical alterations of tissues.
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9- Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Effect
There is great interest in natural compounds such as dietary supplements and herbal remedies used for centuries to reduce pain and inflammation . Extracts and tinctures of saffron have been used to treat fever, wounds, lower back pain, abscesses, and gingivitis as well as pain related to the eruption of the first teeth in infants [56]. Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of stigmas and saffron petals have an antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity for both acute and chronic pain.
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10- Effect on Blood Glucose and Insulin Resistance
The use of high-dose crocetin (40 mg/kg) counteracts the development of insulin resistance by avoiding compensatory hyperinsulinemia; in fact, it limits dyslipidemia by maintaining the values of free fatty acids, triglycerides and LDL-c (Low Density Lipoprotein) in norms and avoids hypertension induced by a diet supplemented with fructose.
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11- Healing of Second-Degree Burns
A study that aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of saffron extract cream in the treatment of heat-induced burns compared its results with those of silver sulfadiazine (SSD) in rats. The wound size of the saffron group was significantly smaller than that of the other groups. A histological comparison showed that saffron significantly increased the re-epithelialization of burn wounds compared with other treatments.
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Saffron has been used traditionally by different nations for various eye diseases such as corneal disease, sore eyes, cataracts and purulent eye infection . The kohl pencil was used in Egyptian antiquity. It is still used today to make eyes black. In fact, oriental women used it to protect themselves from attacks related to the sun, the wind, the sand and possibly ocular infections as well. Kohl was, in fact, a very fine powder obtained by grinding cloves, rosewood, saffron, and antimony .
Current investigations show that saffron extract can reduce eye diseases such as cataracts , retinal degeneration , light-mediated photoreceptor cell death , and improves blood circulation and retinal function.
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LEAD PLAYERS AND THEIR MARKET DYNAMICS, PRICING STRUCTURES AND DISTRIBUTION APPROACHES
The global market size of the saffron sector was US$ 213 million in 2016 (imports). While saffron’s exports in value have continuously increased since 2013, the exported quantity has decreased since 2014. This indicates an increase in saffron prices, which is partly caused by the exchange rate fluctuations faced by the Islamic Republic of Iran, which is the greatest producer of saffron worldwide.
Although the Islamic Republic of Iran produces more than 90% of the world’s saffron, it only accounts for 40% of global exports. This is due to the influence of prestigious re-exporters such as Spain, France and Italy, which add value to Iranian bulk imports and then resell the saffron at a higher price. Countries such as Spain, Italy and France all produce saffron; however, their domestic production is
marginal compared with the quantities that they export. A new entrant and fast-growing exporter of saffron is Hong Kong (China), which marked an exported value of US$5.2 million in 2016 and export growth of 123% between 2012 and 2016.
Islamic Republic of Iran:
Approximately 90% of the world’s saffron is produced in the Islamic Republic of Iran and there is a high correlation between the volume of Iranian saffron exports and the overall increase in saffron exports in the world. Although currency fluctuations in recent years have affected the dollar value of overall exports, the Islamic Republic of Iran remains the global leader in terms of both volume and exported value of saffron. Most Iranian saffron is exported in bulk and then packaged, marketed and distributed through established trade networks of re-exporters.
Few of the 120 Iranian saffron processing and packaging enterprises are exporters, as most limit their focus to supplying the domestic market. The majority of Iranian exporting companies use very basic packaging, which requires repackaging afterwards by re-exporters according to the final export destination.
Spain:
Spain is currently positioned as the second-largest global exporter of saffron, with a total recorded value of saffron exports reaching US$ 66 million in 2016. Global trade statistics do not distinguish between domestically produced exports and re-exports, and Spain’s position as the second largest saffron exporter is undoubtedly tied to its position as the world’s largest importer of saffron. Over half of all Iranian saffron exports (56%) made their way to Spain in 2016. Imported saffron is not only consumed domestically but is also further processed, re-packaged and re-exported with high-end branding and quality assurances.
India:
After the Islamic Republic of Iran, India ranks as the second-largest producer of saffron, with the spice cultivated primarily in the Kashmir region. As a saffron exporter, though, India’s performance is less commanding; it is only ranked twelfth among global saffron exporters. With a spiceloving population that tops 1 billion, India’s impressive production levels are still insufficient to meet domestic demand. To satisfy this demand, US$14.9 million in saffron was imported to India in 2016, making it the world’s fourth-largest importer. This indicates that India predominantly imports for consumption and not for re-exporting, unlike other major saffron exporters.
Italy:
Italy is the second-largest European exporter of saffron after Spain. Like Spain, it has a rich heritage of saffron production that continues to the present day, driven by high demand for the spice in Italian kitchens. Also like Spain,Italy has recognized the profit-generating opportunities in re-exporting saffron. It is the second-largest importer after Spain, with an unknown (though likely substantial) portion of that import volume undergoing value added processing and re-branding, followed by re-export.
Greece:
Another key player in the European saffron trade is Greece. For several years Greece’s saffron exports were damaged by an economic crisis and poor yields but it has since reversed these negative trends. Greece is now the world’s third-largest producer of saffron and eighth-largest exporter, with significant export growth recorded over the last five years.
European re-exporters :
Portugal, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland are not saffron producers but this has not prevented them from operating as major re-exporters and end users. Anecdotal evidence suggests that approximately 95% of the saffron branded and exported by European countries is supplied by the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Global demand is increasing
Global imports of saffron grew 7% annually between 2012 and 2016, indicating that the industry has long-term sustainable growth potential. Most of the current leading importers in Europe appear enthusiastic about importing ever-greater quantities of saffron for the demonstrated profits generated from re-exports. Turkey, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Hong Kong (China) have also recognized the profit potential of saffron processing and re-export and are increasing their import volumes accordingly.
In South Asia, strong growth in saffron demand is coming from the fourth-largest saffron importer, India. India’s explosive economic growth has made saffron accessible for an ever-increasing number of middle- and high-income households. The result has been a 23% annual increase in demand during the past five years.Other fast-growing economies such as Argentina, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and China have contributed to the increased worldwide demand for saffron. Fast-paced growth in the global south has meant more saffron in more kitchens in more countries, with the trend likely to continue. With high levels of demand assured for years to come, future increases in saffron production will be quickly absorbed by the global market.
Re-exports are increasing based on growing worldwide demand for high-quality saffron
The UAE is a significant re-exporter of imported saffron,along with Spain, Turkey, Portugal, the United States of America, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the United Kingdom, among others. Some of these countries do not produce saffron at all (as is the case with the UAE), while others such as Spain are producers, consumers and re-exporters. The level of profitability in saffron re-exports is a function of strategic geographic location, sophistication of packaging methods, creative branding and strong market links.
High per capita retail prices are expected
to remain stable in the long term World saffron prices at wholesale and retail level range from US$1,100 to US$11,000 per kilo, depending on the quality of the saffron and the sales market.It is the most expensive spice in the world, a status that has led industry insiders to refer to saffron as ‘red gold’. Price trends are gravitating upward, a phenomenon that has motivated exporters to increase the volume of exports in recent years.
What explains the high price of saffron in global markets?
Saffron is a highly labour-intensive crop, especially during the harvesting stage of the value chain. Industry research has not yet identified a reliable way to remove the thread-like stigmas from the saffron flower using automation. As a result, among both developed and developing producer nations, the harvesting process is undertaken by hand. As labour costs in Europe have risen, production has been increasingly pushed to developing countries.
Another reason for the high price point of saffron is that global demand for saffron has been increasing at a greater pace than supply. Even increased saffron yields per acre – achieved through improved growing and harvesting methods – have not been sufficient to meet this rising demand. Part of the reason for rising demand is an increase in the use of saffron in niche segments,including pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Marketing and business development activities of lead firms in the sector have also contributed to growing awareness of the uses and benefits of saffron, thereby attracting new consumers. Finally, higher incomes in China, India and other sizeable, fast-growing economies have resulted in more households that can afford to use Saffron on a regular basis.
PRODUCTION OF SAFFRON
Saffron production starts with field preparations; one heavy tilling is required to prepare each plot for planting. Following the tilling, saffron farmers will use between 20 and 100 tons of fertilizer per hectare to prime the fields. Typically, this step is performed in autumn or winter in anticipation of planting the following year. The time window for planting saffron corms starts at the first half of June and lasts until late summer.A rough guideline for planting is 50 corms per square metre.The irrigation phase lasts from beginning of October to May, when the provision of water spurs the growth of the saffron plants and directly impacts the volume of flower blossoming. Notably, during winter, the rain and snow water can be used for irrigation. Harvesting begins roughly 10 to 25 days after initial irrigation, taking place from October to November. Weeding is particularly important after the harvesting stage and is a labour-intensive task.The harvesting period is the most labour-intensive step in saffron production, as saffron flowers have a 48-hour lifespan. Ideally, field workers will begin picking flowers early in the morning, as soon as the flowers blossom. The substantial cost of labour during harvesting is a major contributing factor to saffron’s high global prices: 150,000–170,000 flowers are required to produce a single kilogram of saffron.
The main production inputs include:
Corms (also commonly referred to as ‘bulbs’ or ‘saffron onions’): a one-jerib (0.2 hectare) plot will require 500 kg to 800 kg of corms.
Water: minimal amount required, during the irrigation phase only.
Plots: optimal soil for saffron cultivation is sandy loam rich in calcium, with high organic content.
Ammonia fertilizers: quality of fertilizer directly impacts yields.
Nitrate fertilizers: preferably organic.
Other fertilizers: traditionally animal manure.
Drying equipment: used to dry stigmas after separation from flowers.
Packaging material: necessary for transportation and marketing, preferably airtight.
High-quality corms are often imported from neighbouring countries, as domestic supply varies in quality due to lack of input control, although this situation seems to be improving thanks to increase availability of domestic corm in the country. Saffron farmers are especially attentive to corm size, as it is a significant indicator of future productivity. Farmers also prefer imported ammonia fertilizers rather than domestic brands due to similar concerns about quality. Electrical drying equipment needed during the post-harvest, processing phase is available but scarce in some regions because most of these machines are imported. Packaging materials are also largely imported.
SAFFRON PROCESSING
While harvesting is ongoing, the harvested saffron flowers are stored for a short period in cool, shaded storage areas. The flowers are stacked no deeper than10cm, to prevent crushing of the flowers and damage to the valuable stigmas.The flowers are then transported to processing facilities where the stigma is carefully separated from the flower. After separation, stigmas are dried through air-drying (the traditional method) or by using electronic driers and dehydrators. Air-drying can take up to a week to complete, and as a result machine-assisted drying –with processing times measured in minutes, rather than days – has become the preferred method.The final step of the process is sorting, in which the dried stigmas are graded based on colour, odour, length and shape. Samples of fully processed saffron are sent to laboratories for quality testing. Only saffron passing a certain quality standard is designated for branding and marketing.As domestic and international end users are sensitive to taste and quality, quality testing laboratories are crucial for the future success of saffron.
International market
Exporters usually demand samples from processors for quality checking with foreign buyers. They store and sort the goods for the international market and sometimes even retest Afghan saffron to make sure that the product meets international quality standards. In 2016, Afghanistan exported US$17 million of saffron to international markets. Major destinations were India (US$ 14 million), France (US$ 1.2 million), Saudi Arabia (US$ 1.2 million), the United States of American (US$ 238,000) and Bahrain (US$ 110,000).Notably, informal trade of Afghan saffron reaches the Iranian market, where it is labelled as Iranian, and thus a large amount of Afghan exports of this product goes unreported.In the last several years, Afghan saffron has attracted more and more attention in the European high-end market,based on its unique taste and high quality. This trend indicates remarkable future export opportunities for Afghan saffron, as long as the reputation of the Afghan saffron brand
can be protected through the implementation of quality control measures. As Afghan saffron has managed to make its way to different markets, different dynamics and requirements must be taken into account by exporters. More efforts to strengthen market development and penetration are required.